Postill magazine February 1, 2025 by Pascal Engel
It is customary on both sides of the Atlantic to vilify Donald
Trump, and to see in him the main culprit for most of the ills of recent years:
the definitive transformation of politics into a reality show, the
elevation of lies to the status of a communication system, nepotism and
plutocracy, climate denial, isolationist nationalism, populism, Neronian
authoritarianism, sexism, proto-fascism, and above all vulgarity. All this is
perfectly true, and for once opinion is totally right. That is also a bit of a
problem.
Because Trump is anything but a simpleton. He is not another G.W.
Bush. The system he has put in place is formidable: the more indignant people
become, the more they evoke Caligula or Mussolini with their Godwin points, the
more they fall into his trap, because that is all he is waiting for—he has
understood that not only are people wrong, but they also like to be wrong. He
is in fact, perhaps unwittingly, a profound philosopher. Did he not warn us
that he was “a very stable genius?” He had the merit of posing a number of
perennial philosophical questions. I can think of at least seven.
Truth
The first concerns the notion of truth. By brazenly lying, uttering
obvious untruths and letting his press secretaries resort to concepts like
“alternative facts,” Trump has drawn attention to the absurdity of defining
truth as what is “true for me” and the incoherence of relativism. He has thus
done more service to the defense of truisms such as “truth is conformity to
facts” or “facts are facts” than any dissertation by philosophers who have
attacked post-modernism by trying to refute it with rational arguments.
Trump also made very clear the difference between two conceptions of
truth: the classical conception, according to which truth is correspondence
with facts, and the pragmatic conception, according to which what is useful or
what pays off is true. He explicitly proposed to define truth in the second
way. To journalist Jon Karl he
said: “I always try to tell the truth, and I always want to tell the truth.
But sometimes something happens and there's a change, but I always want to be
truthful.” In other words, when things turn out differently than I thought they
would—understand: to my disadvantage, or if my advantage is to present them
otherwise—I do not tell the truth, but I am still sincere. In other words, my
intentions are good, but my intentions are directed by what suits me, or is
useful to me, and that is then for me the measure of the true. This aspect of
Trumpism has obviously not escaped the notice of subtle Machiavellians and
contemporary disciples of Protagoras. But are they well equipped to criticize
it?
Sincerity
All this shows that Trump is aware, like any politician worthy of
the name, of the difference between truth as utility and truth as
correspondence to facts, on the one hand, and between truth and sincerity, on
the other, and of the fact that it is far more important to present oneself as
respectful of the latter than of the former. Truth is a property of statements,
judgments or speeches, whereas sincerity, or veracity, is a property of people
and their intentions. One can utter false statements while being sincere, and
true statements while lying. In the eyes of many of his voters and supporters,
and in his own eyes, Trump may lie, but he is no less sincere. His technique is
not that of ordinary lying, but rather that of deception. You can deceive by
telling the truth, or by not quite telling the truth, or by keeping the public
guessing as to whether you are dealing with truth or falsehood. The difference
lies in the fact that the liar intends to say the wrong thing, even though he
knows it is not true, whereas the deceiver tries to mislead or confuse, without
taking responsibility for his assertions, as in a shell game.
It is also the bullshit technique, so well described by Harry
Frankfurt (On Bullshit) The liar respects the truth and observes its
rules, whereas the bullshitter does not care. He will say anything,
regardless of whether it is true or false; and he will say it anyway to suit
his own interests. If he senses that his audience has changed its mind or does not
approve, he changes his tune according to their expectations. It is the old
formula for political opportunism. Trump pushes it to its limits, even saying
things that go against his own interests, just because they pop into his head.
This technique is also used for fake news in the media, and
here Trump's individual strategy meets that of the Internet collective,
which enables falsehoods to be propagated exponentially. Fake information can
be understood neither as falsehood nor as truth, because it is up to the
receiver to decide whether, according to his or her tastes and preferences, it
is or is not. Often the receiver sees it as false, but prefers to hold it as
true, and most of the time does not care, whether it is or not. It is the
formula for bullshit—just talking. That is why Trump calls any
truth he does not like fake news. It is the pragmatist criterion of
truth combined with relativism: “What I like is true, what I don't like is
false, but you're entitled to say the same.” This is why, for example, he can
say after the events in Charlottesville: “There are good people on both sides.”
That is also why his opponents are given names that can just as easily apply to
himself: “Crooked Hillary,” “Lying Ted,” like children in the playground: “Liar
yourself.”
Assertion
Trump is also a profound philosopher of assertion. Philosophers of
language debate whether there is a norm of assertion, as a declarative speech
act. Many consider that assertion is governed by the norm of truth: to assert
something is to represent oneself as saying something that is true. Others say
that assertion is governed by a stronger norm, that of knowledge: the speaker
must not only believe that what he is saying is true, and intend to communicate
that he is saying the truth, but know that what he is saying is true. One
wonders whether Trump follows this standard. The bullshitter clearly
does not. In principle he should, not only by virtue of a linguistic norm, but
also by virtue of a political norm—should not a president of the United States,
or even an important politician, state what he knows, not just what he
believes? Even if he does not know everything, does he not have access to
information to which the public does not have access, and is he not responsible
for what he says to a higher degree than the ordinary citizen? But if he denies
any such responsibility, is he not undermining his very presidential function?
Or does he not redefine it, by crudely admitting that a President of the United
States has the right to say anything?
According to some philosophers, assertion is not governed by
standards as strict as truth and knowledge; it depends on contexts and
intentions, and saying is not governed by any central standard. If this is the
case, then Trump is, from the point of view of the pragmatics of discourse,
perfectly legitimate to say anything, depending on the circumstances. But it is
also clear that he is not some drunk sitting at a bar. He says what he says
according to certain intentions he has, what he holds as those of his
interlocutors, and his general objectives. Even if it is in his interest to
sound sincere, the less sincere he is, the less he will be believed.
Trust
Whether or not an assertion, of which public speech is a
paradigmatic manifestation, is governed by the norm of truth or that of
knowledge, the question always arises as to what degree of information or
knowledge authorizes it. This is particularly the case when it comes to the
system of expertise. Experts, such as scientists on climate change, say one
thing. Trump denies it (which shows that he still respects the norm of
assertion, because to deny p is to assert the not p). In the case
of scientific expertise, there is knowledge, even if it is in principle open to
revision or amendment, and even if, in the way it is presented, it may be
biased and linked to political interests. But when it comes to political
communication, particularly via the highly ephemeral medium of Twitter-X/Truth-Social
which the President uses most of the time, how much knowledge underlies the
messages? For Trump, and for most of his supporters, this question is
irrelevant, because the epistemic standard of Trumpian assertions is not knowledge,
but trust.
There is a classic American character, that of the confidence man—the
con-man—whose most famous incarnations are Phineas Taylor Barnum, Frank
Abagnale (the hero of the film Catch Me If You Can) and the central
character of Melville's novel, The Confidence Man. His Masquerade. Trump
is a con-man. The philosophy of testimony opposes two conceptions—one,
defended by Hume, says that if testimony is to be credible, it must go back to
the sources of its justification, and the other, defended by Thomas Reid, says
that testimony must be trusted by default. The con-man obviously relies
on the latter. But it is one thing for testimony to be credible by default
(which explains why we are so gullible); it is another thing for it to be
normatively justified, whatever the source. Even Christ's disciples, like
Thomas, rejected the second thesis. Trump's merit is to have brought these
questions, which are central to social epistemology, back to the forefront.
Morality
Trump's contribution to moral philosophy is no less important than
his contributions to the theory of knowledge. The author of the anonymous New
York Times op-ed
in September 2018 lamented, “The heart of the problem is the president's
amorality. Anyone who works with him knows that he is bound by no discernible
principles to guide his decision-making.” This observer reminded us of the
distinction between immoralism and amoralism, and the relevance of the Trump
case to understanding it. Someone who is immoral is someone who ignores the
good, goes against what is just, or rejects any system of morality or moral
value, which presupposes that we recognize that there is such a thing as acting
morally or justly. Medea says: video meliora, deteriora sequor, “I see
the best but I do the worst.” But Trump is neither Thrasymachus, nor Callicles,
nor Medea, nor Nietzsche, and he certainly has not read Gide's The
Immoralist. He is an amoralist—no moral considerations move him; and it is
fair to say that he has not the slightest idea of what it would mean to be
moral. Perhaps he maintains, as is often said, a kind of poor man's
Machiavellianism—that politics does not need morality.
The Alt-Right also hates political correctness. This
position would make his attitude to truth perfectly consistent—if truth and
veracity have no moral value, and if they do not have to be taken into
consideration, it is understandable that he should allow himself to say
anything, according to his interests, and that he should mock the father of the
American hero Humayun Khan killed in Iraq, or a disabled journalist. You
can blame him, but you cannot blame him for being inconsistent. But the
Trumpian position can be interpreted differently—perhaps he maintains that
ethical action should not be based on principles. According to a school of
moral philosophy known as “particularism,” acting morally does not consist in
applying a principle, but in acting well according to particular situations. So
maybe Trump is a moralist, but of the particularist variety?
Specious present
Kafka said, in his Diary: “The bachelor lives only by the
moment.” But Trump is not a bachelor, even if he may be a bachelor machine à la
Duchamp. He lives in the moment, both because he is always, as we have noted, stream
of consciousness, not in the manner of Virginia Woolf's Mrs Dalloway, but
in the manner of his preferred mode of communication, Twitter-X/Truth Social.
He lives in what William James calls the “specious present,” the brief moment
when we are aware of the present, but which has already passed by the time we
realize it. Bergson, then Husserl, analyzed this awareness of time, but the
45th President of the United States is more concerned with the psychopathology
of attention deficit disorder, which, like Twitter/X, turns this
pathology into a business. He does not insult anyone, because his insults (such
as when he calls his head of diplomacy “as stupid as his feet” and “as lazy as
a snake”) are as quickly forgotten as they are uttered.
Ideal
The Trump presidency contains a more general philosophical lesson,
prophetically drawn long ago by Richard Rorty in Achieving our Country
(1998): “At that point, something will crack. The nonsuburban electorate will
decide that the system has failed and start looking around for a strongman to
vote for-someone willing to assure them that, once he is elected, the smug
bureaucrats, tricky lawyers, overpaid bond salesmen, and postmodernist
professors will no longer be calling the shots. A scenario like that of Sinclair
Lewis' novel It Can't Happen Here may then be played out. For once such
a strongman takes office, nobody can predict what will happen. In I 932, most
of the predictions made about what would happen if Hindenburg named Hitler
chancellor were wildly overoptimistic. One thing that is very likely to happen
is that the gains made in the past forty years by black and brown Americans,
and by homosexuals, will be wiped out. Jocular contempt for women will come
back into fashion. The words "nigger" and "kike" will once
again be heard in the workplace. All the sadism which the academic Left has
tried to make unacceptable to its students will come flooding back. All the
resentment which badly educated Americans feel about having their manners
dictated to them by college graduates will find an outlet.”
Rorty has been widely praised for his lucidity, for thus predicting
the Trump phenomenon, and beyond those we are experiencing in Europe. But there
is one essential point on which Rorty was not lucid. He believed that we should
not revisit postmodernism's rejection of the classical ideals of democracy
founded on values of truth, knowledge, reason and justice taken as moral
values, because he held these values to be empty. He believed that the American
left should not return to these values, but replace them with other, more
social ones, such as solidarity and “deep” democracy à la Dewey. But I believe,
on the contrary, that what the Trump presidency shows is that democracy will
only revive if these classic ideals and values are maintained and reaffirmed.
It is not always so clear in books about Trump. Those by Jason
Stanley (How Fascism Works, 2018) or Tim Snyders (On Tyranny,
2017) rely on the imputation of fascism. They are not wrong, of course; but
they are wrong when they analyze its propaganda as well-oiled rhetoric. Umberto
Eco said of Mussolini's fascism that it was all rhetoric, and not an ounce of
philosophy. It seems to me, on the contrary, that Trump's policies contain a
lot of philosophy and rather little rhetoric—he does not intend to persuade.
And if we have to fight him, it is on that score. Then we will have to pit
philosophy against philosophy, and, for example, take issue with
Schopenhauerians like Houellebecq who say they are delighted with Trump and
applaud his nihilism. There is nothing to be delighted about, and religion will
not save us from him.
IThis essay was originally published in AOC (January 9, 2019).